Intercultural Learning on Short-term Sojourns

This paper presents an ethnographic case study of advanced second language (L2) students from Hong Kong who took part in a short-term sojourn in England after fourteen weeks of preparation. While abroad, they lived with a host family, took literary/ cultural studies courses, visited cultural sites, participated in debriefing sessions, and conducted ethnographic projects. Data consisted of interviews, an intercultural reflections journal, surveys, field notes, ethnographic conversations, and a diary. The Intercultural Development Inventory measured their intercultural sensitivity on entry, after the presojourn preparation, and post-sojourn. The findings supported the primary assumption that underpins the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity: ‘as one’s experience of cultural difference becomes more complex and sophisticated, one’s competence in intercultural relations increases’ (Intercultural Communication Institute, 2004). Introduction The number of second language (L2) youth taking part in study abroad programs has mushroomed in recent years, especially those who take part in short-term sojourns, ranging from three to seven weeks (Chieffo and Griffiths, 2003; Spencer and Tuma, 2008). While many educators assume that residence in the host culture automatically spurs growth in L2 proficiency and intercultural sensitivity, study abroad researchers are discovering that this is not necessarily the case. Inadequate preparation, unrealistic/ unmet expectations, and unsettling intercultural encounters can have detrimental effects on sojourner perceptions, adjustment, and willingness to engage with host nationals. Students may even return home with entrenched negative stereotypes of their hosts and the host culture (Allen, Dristas, and Mills, 2007; Bateman, 2002; Stroebe, Lenkert, and Jonas, 1988), ‘a strengthened sense of national identity’ (Block, 2007), and a higher dose of ethnocentricism (Isabelli-Garçia, 2006; Jackson, 2008). What steps can be taken to counteract this? How can we maximize the intercultural learning of student sojourners? This paper reports on an ethnographic case study of a study abroad program that was designed to enhance the intercultural communicative competence of advanced speakers of the host language. By examining the trajectories of one of the cohorts, as they travelled from their home environment to the host culture and back again, we gain a deeper understanding of their intercultural learning over time and space. The findings suggest specific program elements that have the potential to promote deeper levels of critical reflection and intercultural competence. Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) Bennett’s (1993) Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS), which served as the theoretical framework for the present study, centres on people’s awareness and response to cultural difference. Central to this theory are the constructs of ethnocentricism and ethnorelativism (Bennett 1993, 1997; Bennett & Bennett, 2004; Landis, Bennett & Bennett, 2004). In the former, ‘the worldview of one’s own culture is central to all reality’ (Bennett, 1993: 30); ethnorelativism is associated with ‘being comfortable with many standards and customs’ and the ‘ability to adapt behaviour and judgments to a variety of interpersonal settings’ (p. 26). Ethnorelative worldviews are considered more effective in fostering the mindset, knowledge, and skills linked to successful intercultural communication and adjustment in unfamiliar cultural settings (Bennett and Bennett, 2004; Kim, 2001, 2005). The DMIS posits that ‘as one’s experience of cultural difference becomes more complex and sophisticated, one’s competence in intercultural relations increases’ (Intercultural Communication Institute, 2004). Individuals are thought to progress from ethnocentric stages (Denial, Defense, and Minimization) through ethnorelative stages of development (Acceptance, Adaptation, and Integration) as they acquire intercultural competence. Individuals do not always advance to the next stage in sequence, however; due to unpleasant intercultural experiences, for example, they may regress to a lower level of sensitivity. Empirical research on intercultural competence and study abroad Study abroad researchers from a variety of disciplines have drawn on the DMIS to track the intercultural learning of student sojourners. In the following studies, the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) (Hammer and Bennett, 2002), a survey based on the DMIS, was employed to measure the actual and perceived intercultural sensitivity of students before and after their stay abroad. Engle and Engle (2004) assessed the intercultural sensitivity of American students who took part in either a semester or full-year-abroad program in France. The longer-term sojourners developed a higher level of intercultural communicative competence, with the most progress occurring in the second half of their stay. The IDI was also used by Anderson, Lawton, Rexeisen, and Hubbard (2006) to measure the impact of a faculty-led, short-term study abroad program on the intercultural sensitivity of 23 American business students in Europe. As a group, the participants became more willing to accept cultural differences, lessening their ethnocentric tendencies. Preliminary results suggested that well-designed short-term programs have the potential to foster the ‘overall development of crosscultural sensitivity’ in student sojourners. Employing both qualitative and quantitative measures, Medina-López-Portillo (2004) investigated the intercultural sensitivity development of 28 American university students who participated in either a seven-week program in Taxco, Mexico or a sixteen-week sojourn in Mexico City. The longer-term sojourners developed a more sophisticated understanding of the host culture and a higher level of intercultural sensitivity. Both cohorts had inflated opinions about their degree of intercultural sensitivity, rating it at least one stage higher than their actual level. All of these studies investigated the intercultural sensitivity development of American students who participated in sojourns ranging from seven weeks to a year. Drawing on the DMIS and IDI, the present study examined the intercultural learning of Chinese students from a Hong Kong university who took part in a five-week sojourn in an English-speaking country. The short-term study abroad program In keeping with the home institution’s internationalization policy, the English Department established a study abroad program for its second year English majors. The program aims to enhance their English language proficiency, intercultural sensitivity, literary awareness, and intercultural communicative competence. In particular, it is expected that the participants will become more confident and display enhanced sensitivity when communicating in English with people from other cultures in a range of settings, including informal, social situations. The program consists of three phases: pre-sojourn, sojourn, and post-sojourn; all courses, including sojourn fieldwork, are credit-bearing and integrated into the Bachelor of Arts program of studies. Experiential learning and guided critical reflection are core elements. Pre-sojourn elements The pre-sojourn phase consists of seminars in intercultural communication, ethnographic research, and English literature (related to cultural site visits/ theatre productions in the host culture). In the offering that is the focus of this paper, all of the courses took place during the 14-week semester preceding the sojourn. In the ethnography course, I introduced the theory and practice of ethnography (e.g., participant observation, note-taking, reflexive interviewing, the audio-recording/ transcribing/ analysis of discourse). After completing a series of tasks to hone their skills and understanding of this approach, the students carried out their own small-scale ‘home ethnography’ project. This assignment was designed to stimulate awareness of their environment and promote a systematic approach to cultural learning (Jackson, 2006). Selected topics were very diverse (e.g., code-mixing in a local family, the intercultural adjustment of an exchange student, the life of a social worker in Hong Kong). In the ‘Communication across cultures’ course, I included both culture-general and culturespecific elements. Basically, I emphasized the application of intercultural communication theories to practical communication problems that can occur when people from different cultures interact. Activities in this experiential course included: readings, observation and analysis of videoclips, lectures, the writing of a language and cultural identity narrative, interviewing an exchange student, the analysis of critical incidents, discussions, simulations, and the writing of an intercultural reflections journal. Each week, an hour-long tutorial concentrated on preparation for daily life with an English host family (e.g., strategies to cope with culture shock, roles and responsibilities of hosts and ‘guests’, sociopragmatic norms of politeness in the host culture). The course included two writing assignments designed to raise the students’ awareness of themselves as cultural beings and stimulate critical reflection about ways to enhance intercultural relations. The language and cultural identity narrative was written soon after they joined the program. By way of prompts, I encouraged the students to consider the impact of their cultural socialization on their self-identity, language choices, communication style, and attitudes towards people from other cultures. Throughout the semester, they recorded their reactions to intercultural experiences and course material in a journal. To facilitate deeper levels of reflection and analysis, I supplied a list of (optional) open-ended questions: (e.g., ‘How might the experience of studying/ living in another culture impact on a person’s sense of self? How might it broaden one’s identity? Why might it have the opposite effect?’) Their writing offered insight into their awareness of and reaction to cultural difference and provided direction for the selection of activities and other course material. Five-week sojourn in England To facilitate access to the local culture, the sojourn included residence with a host family; only one Cantonese-speaking student was placed in each homestay to promote immersion in the host language. At the host institution, the students took specially-designed literary and cultural studies courses and participated in excursions (e.g., visits to the theatre, museums, villages). They also had free time to explore the community and pursue individual interests. At the beginning of each week and on the last day of the sojourn, a local cultural studies specialist and I facilitated a debriefing session, encouraging the students to raise questions about aspects of the host culture that they found confusing, interesting, or unsettling. Under my guidance, the students also investigated a cultural scene of their choice using the ethnographic skills that they had developed in Hong Kong. Most opted to learn more about a cultural activity linked to their homestay or hosts (e.g., lace-making, a youth group, the pub culture). In a diary, on a regular basis throughout their stay, the students recorded their observations and reactions to sojourn experiences, including intercultural contact. To stimulate deeper levels of critical reflection and analysis, I again provided optional open-ended questions (e.g., Think about the values, beliefs and/or identities that you held before travelling to England. Compare that person with the person you are now. Are you changing in any way? If yes, how?). Post-sojourn elements Back in Hong Kong, the students wrote a final entry in their diary about their sojourn and re-entry experiences. During a 14-week semester, they developed a 30-page+ dissertation based on their ethnographic data (under my supervision) or explored a topic in English literature (under the tutelage of a literature professor). Those who chose to work with their ethnographic material were prompted to reflect further on their intercultural encounters. I also encouraged them to take stock of their learning and set goals for further linguistic, cultural, and personal enhancement. The Study Research design and aims To better understand the language and (inter)cultural development of the selected cohort, I employed an ethnographic approach. I was able to get to know the students in both informal and formal situations during a 12-month period; this allowed me to build up trust and rapport as I gathered data. To provide an objective measure of their cultural sensitivity and add another element of triangulation, I administered the IDI periodically. I aimed to discover how the students perceived cultural differences and made sense of their intercultural experiences in both Hong Kong and England. To enhance the design and delivery of the program, I also wished to identify elements that appeared to stimulate deeper levels of awareness and critical reflection.